Twelve studies met the inclusion criteria but only eight (112 participants) contained sufficient outcome data for this review.
Inter-observer agreement for study selection was 0.67 on a scale from 0 to 1. The combined effect size for ankle dorsiflexion muscle strength was 1.17 (95% CI: 0.50, 1.85, p=0.0006), which represented a difference of 2.5 kg muscle force in favour of biofeedback.
The combined effect size for gait quality was 0.48 (95% CI: -0.06, +1.01, p=0.08), which represented approximately 0.5 of a point on the Basmajian gait scale in favour of biofeedback.
The combined effect size for ankle range of motion was 0.07 (95% CI: -0.42, +0.57, p=0.78), which represented a difference of 0.7 degrees between biofeedback treatment and control treatment; this difference was not statistically significant.
The combined effect size for ankle angle during gait was 0.51 (95% CI: -0.17, +1.21, p=0.14), which represented a difference of 5.7 degrees in favour of biofeedback.
The combined effect size for stride length was 0.09 (95% CI: -0.56, +0.73, p=0.80), which represented 2.0 cm in favour of biofeedback; this difference was not statistically significant.
The combined effect size for gait speed was 0.31 (95% CI: -0.16, +0.78, p=0.20), which represented a difference of 8.4 m over 2 minutes in favour of biofeedback.